This chapter will introduce the structure of a C and C++ program along with how to declare variables and constants.
The C and C++ programming languages are powerful mid-level programming languages that were created as systems programming languages. This means that the language allows access to operating system functions. In addition the language has the capability for easy access to hardware. The C language is a very portable language in that it is relatively easy to port source code from one compiler to another. This is possible because all input-output calls are isolated from the language syntax in vendor supplied libraries. The C and C++ language compiler is a very small program that recognizes only 60 key words. The compiler can produce very efficient executable programs because of the simplicity of the language, the compiler can be made to optimize the resultant code. Also, the linkage editor only incorporates object modules that are actually used in the executable program.
The C and C++ language is a structured language which supports all necessary components of a structured language such as global and local variables, parameter passing by value and reference, and function and/or procedure return values. The C and C++ compiler also supports the concept of separate compilation of source code modules and the linking of independent object modules either from standalone files or from system or local libraries. This separate compilation feature allows the programmer to recompile only the parts of an application that have changed and relink those modified parts with existing modules to produce a new executable program. The C and C++ compiler also allows an interface to assembly language. The compiler allows blocks of code can be written in assembly and linked with blocks written in C and C++. A block of code could be a function or simply several lines of code within a larger C and C++ function. The programmer only has to use the keyword asm followed by an opening {, then the assembly code for the processor being used and then a terminating }. The assembly code can use any variable declared within the C and C++ code that follows within the scope of the assembly code. The C language component of a C and C++ compiler has some weaknesses that make the language difficult to use as an application language. The language lacks strong type checking, meaning that the compiler will allow a character variable to be stored into a floating point variable without complaining. The C++ component of a C and C++ compiler has much stronger type checking and will issue warnings for such behavior. So for the programmer to receive the maximum protection against mixed type errors, it would be better to use the C++ component of the C and C++ compiler. Neither C nor C++ has bounds checking on arrays. For example, if a programmer declares an array of 50 integers, but in the program code he or she by mistake stores a value into array element 52, the compiler will not complain. The integer value was indeed stored at the fifty-second integer sized offset from the base address of the array. This lack of bounds checking can cause severe problems in some programs. In the MS-DOC and PC-DOS operating system, neither C nor C++ has any memory protection from access by pointers. A programmer can load a memory address of any place in memory into a pointer and through that pointer retrieve or set the value at that memory address. This feature can cause the DOS operating system to re- boot, hang-up, or crash completely. In addition, a programmer that is unfamiliar with the use of pointers, can, in MS/PC-DOS, cause his or her hard disk drive to crash, be reformatted, or destroyed. The same also holds true for the video display on a DOS machine. Fortunately, mini-computer operating systems, such as UNIX, have builtin memory protection that prevents such dangerous happenings as stated above. Also, C and C++ does not have sophisticated string and record handling capabilities. Strings must be handled with a series of functions supplied in the standard C and C++ libraries. With C++, sophisticated String objects can be created as well as advanced record management schemes.
The majority of C and C++ programs are composed of functions. All functions have the following general form:
Function-Return-Type Function-Name(argument list)
{
local variable declarations;
body of the function;
}
A general form for a C and C++ program is as follows:
inclusion of header files
defined constants
declarations of global variables
Function-Return-Type main(arguments from command line)
{
declaration of local variables used by main function;
body of the main function;
}
Function-Return-Type next_function(argument list)
{
declaration of local variables for next_function;
body of the next_function;
}
A C and C++ program must have one and only one function with the name of main. main must be in lower case. The main function should have a return type of either int or void, with int being the preferred return type. Since main is the entry point to the program from a calling process, which could be the operating system or another program, the return value of main is used to indicate the completion status of the called program. A program that returns a value of 0 is considered to have completed successfully and a return value other than 0 is considered to indicate an abnormal termination. All functions in the program, besides main, can have names the programmer desires. The names of functions should indicate what task or purpose that function is to perform. All C and C++ keywords must be in lower case. Function names can be composed of letters, digits and underscores and can be a maximum of 30 characters, but must be unique in the first 8 characters. Functions must have a pair of curly braces, { }, these signify the beginning and end of a function’s scope. The names of variables that are declared within a function can be the same as function names, but this is not a good practice. Variables declared within the scope of a function are called local variables. Local variables “live” only while the function has control. When the function terminates, and control returns to the calling function, all local variables cease to exist. The statements within a function are terminated with a semi- colon, this is called the statement terminator. Nested functions or subroutines are not allowed. Nesting a function means that one function is defined within another. The difference between a declaration and definition is important. A declaration announces the properties of a variable or a function. The main reason for declaring variables and functions is for type checking. If you declare a variable or function and then later make reference to it with data objects that do not match the types in the declaration, the compiler will complain. The purpose of the complaint is to catch type errors at compile time rather than waiting until the program is run, when the results can be more disastrous. A definition, on the other hand, actually sets aside storage space (in the case of a variable) or indicates the sequence of statements to be carried out (in the case of a function). A function prototype, or declaration, is a return type followed by a function declarator followed by a semicolon. A function definition is a return type followed by a function declarator followed by a function body enclosed in matching braces, { }. A function definition can also serve as a declaration for all source code following the definition. The only time a function declaration is actually required is when a reference is made to a function before the function definition is specified. A variable declaration with an extern specifier is not a definition, unless it has an initializer. The function prototype is a function declaration, but it is not a definition. To place comments in a C and C++ program the programmer may use /* and */ pairs. These comment indicators cannot be nested but can span multiple lines. C++ allows the use of // as a comment indicator. This symbol indicates that the rest of the line upto the newline character is to be treated as a comment. When first learning C and C++ programming, always start C programs with
#include "stdio.h"
and C++ programs with
#include "iostream.h"
These header files include the function prototypes that allow a program to call the standard input/output functions that make it possible to write to the screen and read from the keyboard.
#include "stdio.h"
int main()
{
char name[30];
/* prompt user for name */
printf("\nEnter your name: ");
/* read the users response from the keyboard */
gets(name);
/* print welcome message */
printf("\nWelcome %s to C Language Programming", name);
return 0;
}
#include "iostream.h"
int main()
{
char lname[25], fname[15];
// prompt user for first name and last name
cout << "\nEnter your first name then last name: ";
// read the users response from the keyboard
cin >> fname >> lname;
// print welcome message
cout << "\nWelcome " << fname << " " << lname
<< " to C++ Language Programming"
<< endl;
return 0;
}
Header files are source code files that contain defined constants, constant values, macros, data type templates and function prototypes. C and C++ needs to define function prototypes for calls to functions residing outside of the current file. All input/output functions, memory management function, string manipulation functions, math functions and assorted other functions reside in external libraries and are not part of the syntax of the language. In order for a C and C++ program to make use of these capabilities, the program must first include the proper header file that prototypes the functions desired. The program is then compiled, with the prototypes used to syntax check the calls to the external functions. The compiler produces an object code representation of the source file with a table that contains references to functions for which the compiler could not find the code. The object file is then given to the linkage editor program that attempts to resolve the external references with functions in the standard C and C++ function libraries. If the linkage editor is able to resolve all references, then an executable program is produced, otherwise, linker error messages that state what functions could not be found are produced. The location of header files is dependent upon what operating system is being used and in the case of a PC environment, which vendor’s compiler is being used. The following shows the most common locations for header files.
Location of Header Files by Vendor Operating System Compiler Vendor Standard Headers UNIX GNU /usr/include system supplier /usr/include DOS Borland c:bc4include Microsoft c:msvcinclude
Most C and C++ compilers are four pass compilers. The first pass is called the preprocessor and this pass looks only for # in the source line. The preprocessor commands indicate
All statements can be free form or appear anywhere on the line. The second pass of the compiler parses C and C++ language statements, constructs a symbol table and reports syntax errors. The third pass generates the object code that represents the source code that was input. Also, this pass builds the external reference table. The fourth pass performs code optimization on the object code. If the compiler did not find any errors, then the compiler starts a process on the linker or loader. The linker takes the object code representing the original source statements and binds or links that binary code with the binary code of any external functions or subroutines that the program called. For a simple program, the external functions are found in the standard C library which is located in a library file in a subdirectory known to the linker program. For more complex application programs, the linker must be directed to look not only at the standard library files but at additional libraries that were either developed internally or were purchased from a third party. The location of library files is dependent upon what operating system is being used and in the case of a PC environment, which vendor’s compiler is being used. The following shows the most common locations for the standard C library file.
Location of Standard Libraries by Vendor Operating System Compiler Vendor Standard Library UNIX GNU /usr/lib/libc.a system supplier /usr/lib/libc.a DOS Borland c:bc4libcX.lib Microsoft c:msvclibXlibce.lib (where X is one of S, M,C, L, or H which stands for the various memory models available on a PC )
Before starting to program in C and C++, it is necessary to become familiar with the rules concerning the declaration of variables, the types of variables, the way those variables can be used to form expressions and the way values for those variables can be input and output.
C and C++ requires that all variables or identifiers be declared before there use. Variables or identifiers have three attributes associated with them;
Under the ANSI C standard all variables or identifiers can be assigned an initial value when declared. Identifiers also fall into two major categories. An identifier is either a global variable or identifier or a local variable or identifier. A global variable is one that is declared outside the bounds of a function. The boundaries of a function start at the function heading and end at the closing curly brace, }. The following represents the function heading:
function-return_type function_name( argument list )
{
...
}
A global variable can be accessed by any function that is defined below the declaration of the variable, but cannot be seen by any function that is defined above the variable declaration. A global variable will hold any value placed into it until another value is stored into it or until the program terminates. Global variables are not initialized to any predefined value when declared, so it must be initialized if a starting value is expected. A local variable is declared within the bounds of a function, and can only be seen by statements within the body of the function where the variable is declared. A local variable will only hold a value placed into it for as long as the function that the variable is declared within has program control. When the function returns control back to the calling function, either through a return statement or by encountering the closing }, the local variable is destroyed. A local variable has no predefined value when declared, so it must be initialized if a starting value is expected. The following examples will illustrate.
#include "stdio.h"
int myage; /* global variable to both main()
and getage() */
int main()
{
char myname[30];
void getage();
printf("\nEnter your name:");
gets( myname );
getage();
printf("\n AGE = %d and NAME = %s", myage, myname );
return 0;
}
void getage()
{
printf("\nEnter your age: ");
scanf("%d",&myage);
}
#include "iostream.h"
int myage; // global variable to both main() and getage()
int main()
{
char myname[30];
void getage();
cout << "Enter your name: ";
cin >> myname;
getage();
cout << "AGE = " << myage
<< " NAME = " << myname;
return 0;
}
void getage()
{
cout << "Enter your age: ";
cin >> myage;
}
In the above example int myage declares the variable myage outside of main(), and both main() and getage() can use myage.
#include "stdio.h"
int main()
{
char myname[30];
void getage();
printf("\nEnter your name:");
gets( myname );
getage();
printf("\n AGE = %d and NAME = %s", myage, myname );
return 0;
}
int myage; /* global to only getage() */
int getage()
{
printf("\nEnter your age: ");
scanf("%d",&myage);
}
#include "iostream.h"
int main()
{
char myname[30];
void getage();
cout << "Enter your name: ";
cin >> myname;
getage();
cout << "AGE = " << myage
<< " NAME = " << myname;
return 0;
}
int myage; // global only to getage
int getage()
{
cout << "Enter your age: ";
cin >> myage;
}
In the above example, int myage is global only to getage() and only getage() can see and use myage. The function main() cannot use myage because it does not know of its existence; therefore, the above example will not compile on most systems. For the above example to compile and work, the function getage() would have to return the value myage holds and the function main() would have to receive the returned value from getage() into some local variable, and then print the contents of that variable. When first learning to write C and C++ programs, the student should avoid using global variables. Beginning C and C++ programmers must learn to write programs that use only local variables in order to learn the concepts of modular programming. This style of programming will make it much easier to debug programs.
#include "stdio.h"
int main()
{
char myname[30];
int theage;
int getage();
printf("\nEnter your name:");
gets( myname );
theage = getage();
printf("\n AGE = %d and NAME = %s", theage, myname );
return 0;
}
int getage()
{
int myage; /* local to only getage() */
printf("\nEnter your age: ");
scanf("%d",&myage);
return (myage);
}
#include "iostream.h"
int main()
{
char myname[30];
int theage;
int getage();
cout << "Enter your name: ";
cin >> myname;
theage = getage();
cout << "AGE = " << theage
<< " NAME = " << myname;
return 0;
}
int getage()
{
int myage; // local only to getage
cout << "Enter your age: ";
cin >> myage;
return (myage);
}
A description of the syntax of a variable declaration is:
[storage class][type modifier]type id-1 [= initial value];
Examples:
auto int x = 0;
extern float average;
static double seed;
register int indx;
unsigned char = 205;
char name[] = "John Smith";
Storage classes are used to indicate duration and scope of a variable or identifier. Duration indicates the life span of a variable. Scope indicates the visibility of the variable. The auto storage class is the default storage class for a local variable. This storage class makes the variable known only to the function in which it is declared. The duration is temporary. The variable exists only as long as the function where it was declared has control. The scope is local. The variable is known or visible only within the function where it is declared.
#include "stdio.h"
int main()
{
char myname[30]; /* lives only until the } is */
/* encountered */
int myage;
...
}
The static storage class is used to declare an identifier that is a local variable either to a function or a file and that exists and retains its value after control passes from where it was declared. This storage class has a duration that is permanent. A variable declared of this class retains its value from one call of the function to the next. The scope is local. A variable is known only by the function it is declared within or if declared globally in a file, it is known or seen only by the functions within that file. This storage class guarantees that declaration of the variable also initializes the variable to zero or all bits off.
#include "stdio.h"
int main()
{
char myname[30];
void getage();
int readage();
int lastage;
printf("\nEnter your name:");
gets( myname );
getage();
lastage = readage();
printf("\n AGE = %d and NAME = %s", lastage, myname );
return 0;
}
static int myage; /* global static seen by all code */
/* coming after this statement */
void getage()
{
printf("\nEnter your age: ");
scanf("%d",&myage);
}
int readage()
{
return myage;
}
The extern storage class is used to declare a global variable that will be known to the functions in a file and capable of being known to all functions in a program. This storage class has a duration that is permanent. Any variable of this class retains its value until changed by another assignment. The scope is global. A variable can be known or seen by all functions within a program. The following resides in FILE1.C:
#include "stdio.h"
int myage;
int main()
{
char myname[30];
void getage();
printf("\nEnter your name:");
gets( myname );
getage();
printf("\n AGE = %d and NAME = %s", myage, myname );
return 0;
}
This resides within FILE2.C:
The register storage class is used to declare a local variable except that the contents are stored in a CPU register. The storage class has a duration that is temporary. The variable is treated exactly like an auto class variable. The scope is local. The variable is treated exactly like an auto class variable. Only data types that occupy a word of storage of less can use this storage class because CPU registers are typically no longer than the word size of the machine. This would usually be used for a loop iterator or control variable in order to gain as much speed as possible in the code.
#include "stdio.h"
int main()
{
char thename[30];
register int count;
printf("\nEnter ten names. " );
for( count = 0; count < 10; ++ count )
{
printf("\nEnter a name:");
gets( thename );
printf("\n NAME = %s", thename );
}
return 0;
}
The modifier of a data type can be one of the following: unsigned Indicates that the following data type will not have a sign bit allocated. This modifier can be used with char or int data types. signed Indicates that the following data type will have a sign bit allocated. Signed data items are the default on most systems. This modifier can be used with char or int data types. short The data storage allocated is usually no bigger in number of bits allocated than an int data type. This modifier can be used with an int data type or by itself. If used without a following data type, int is implied as the data type. long The data storage allocated on most systems is usually twice the number of bits allocated to an int data type. On some systems 32-bit and longer word length systems, long gets the same number of bits as an int. This modifier is used on either int or float type data. When used on int type data, it usually means data storage is twice as long as an int data type. When used on float type data, it creates a data type of double. When used without a following data type, int is implied as the data type. The base data types available are: char Items of this type hold character type data and occupy one byte of storage. On most machines one byte is eight bits of storage. For most compilers this type of data items will be signed data item, meaning that one of the eights for storage has been set aside for an algebraic sign. int Items of this type hold integer type data and occupy one word of storage. The length of a word will depend upon the machine architecture. These types of data items are by default signed data storage. float Items of this type hold floating point or real type data and occupy one or two words of storage. The length of this data type is dependent upon the machine architecture. These types of data items are by default signed data storage. double Items of this type hold double precision floating point type data and occupy two words of storage. These types of data items are by default signed data storage.
The following chart indicates the number of bits allocated to the various data types of the C and C++ language. This chart applies to an IBM PC running MS-DOS.
Bits Per Data Type Type Number of Bits char 8 int 32 float 32 double 64 long int 32 short int 16 long float 64
C and C++ both allow long descriptive variable or identifier names. The rules for forming a variable name also apply to function names. The rules are:
#. the first character must be a letter, either lowercase or uppercase; #. case is significant, uppercase and lowercase letters are different; #. traditionally, variable names are composed of lowercase letters, numbers, and the underscore character #. defined constants are traditionally made up of all uppercase characters #. the number of characters allowed in a variable name is compiler dependent, but the variable must be unique in the first eight characters in order to be safe across compilers; #. make variable names descriptive; #. do not make a variable name the same as a reserved word.
The reserved words for the ANSI C language are:
auto double int struct
break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while
The following reserved words have been added for C++
catch protected
delete public
friend template
inline this
new throw
operator try
private virtual
wchar_t
In addition, the X3J16 Technical Committee has proposed that the following keywords be added to the language definition for C++
and and_eq bitand bitor
bool compl not not_eq
or or_eq xor xor_eq
C and C++ allow for the programmer to define constants that represent decimal, hexadecimal octal, string and character constants. The #define preprocessor directive can be used to define constants that are to be used within a program.
#define PI 3.14156
#define MYNAME "JOHN DOE"
#define LIMIT 10
#define ESC '0x1B'
In addition, literals can be used as constants in the body of the program. Literals can be string literals, character literals or numeric literals. Any numeric literal starting with a 0 (zero) is considered to be an octal number. In order to express hexadecimal literals, use a 0 (zero) followed by a lower case or upper case x or X.
Octal Hex Decimal
023 0x13 19
0777 0x1FF 511
077 0x3F 63
01 0x01 1
Character constants are written within single quotes, double quotes are reserved for strings. For example:
char c;
c = 'A';
stores a single character A into the character variable c. Whereas, the following
c = "A";
attempts to store the string A into a single character variable c. A string is composed of the characters composing the string plus a NULL character, 0 (a ** followed by a zero). Some characters cannot be typed in a source file but have special codes to represent their meanings, these are referred to in **C and C++ as escape sequences. C and C++ predefines the following escape sequences
Pre-defined Escape Sequences Character in C or C++ Meaning n newline character b backspace r carriage return t horizontal tab v vertical tab f form feed character a ring the console bell ” double quote ‘ single quote 0 NULL (used to indicate end of string) \ backslash xxx any three digit octal representation of a character; also could be hexadecimal, i.e., ‘007’ is the octal for the bell character on the PC and 0x07 is the hex for the bell character The above escape sequences are typically used in printf() or cout to control cursor movement on the video display device. Some dot matrix printers also support the cursor movement escape sequences to move the print head on the page.
Both const and volatile are two keywords that are in the ANSI C standard. They help identify which variables will never ( const) change and those variables that can change unexpectedly ( volatile). Both keywords require that an associated data type be declared for the identifier, for example
const float pi = 3.14156;
specifies that the variable pi can never be changed by the program. Any attempt by code within the program to alter the value of pi will result in a compile time error. The value of a const variable must be set at the time the variable is declared. Specifying a variable as const allows the compiler to perform better optimization on the program because of the data type being known. There is a tendency to replace all #define defined constants with variables using the const keyword. This is not a good idea. The defined constants are only incorporated within the program body if they are used. All variables declared with const take up address space in the program whether they are used or not. The defined constants can also be declared globally within an application header file and included into any number of source files that comprise the application source. If the defined constants are replaced with const variables in a header file and appear globally, errors result at the time the different compiled modules of the application are linked together. Therefore, const is not a direct replacement for #define constants. The volatile keyword indicates that a variable can unexpectedly change because of events outside the control of the program. This usually is used when some variable within the program is linked directly with some hardware component of the system. The hardware could then directly modify the value of the variable without the knowledge of the program.